历史上的权术与权术的历史——权术发展的历程
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; TEXT-INDENT: 21pt"><B style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN style="COLOR: #ff6600; FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">历史的发展,产生了政治权术。政治权术本身,也有自己发展的历史。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><B><BR></B></SPAN><SPAN class=orange><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">一、奴隶制时代的权术</SPAN></B></SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在人类社会的发展过程中,曾经有过不知政治权术为何物的年代。根据现代生物学的研究,一些高等动物已具有某种狡黠的求生本能。权术作为一种人类狡黠的智慧,或许同来源于动物界的狡黠本能多多少少有着一点点遥远的血缘关系。但是,作为政治斗争手段的政治权术,毕竟只是人类社会特定阶段的产物。人类社会的蒙昧时代,没有统治和奴役存在的余地,权利和义务之间还没有任何差别。当此</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">冬穴夏巢之时、茹毛饮血之世</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">①</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,原始人类尚不知阶级、国家、政治为何物,政治</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术当然更是无从谈起。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">自从人类迈进阶级社会的门坎,政治权术这个人类智慧的怪胎,便伴随着阶级斗争特别是政治斗争的展开,毫不羞惭地破腹而出,降临到人间。中国古代的文人,常常把中国早期奴隶社会的政治状况理想化,恋慕地赞扬:</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">三代圣王,有至诚而无权术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">②</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。其实大谬不然。在</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">夏、商、周三代历史中,有关运用政治权术的传说和记载,已经是不可胜数了。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">据《左传》记载,夏代国君太康荒淫放荡,被后羿夺取了政权。奴隶主寒浞玩弄阴谋诡计,取得后羿的信任,被任用为相。为人</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">谗慝诈伪</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的寒浞,采用</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">行媚于内而施赂于外</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的权术手段,勾引后羿妻妾,收买后羿的家奴,并怂恿后羿耽于田猎,自己趁机</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">取其国家</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。寒浞最终将后羿</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">杀而烹之</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,又强令后羿之子食其父肉。其子不忍,亦被杀死</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">③</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。可见早在夏代,中国就已经出现了寒浞一类的权术家。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">另据史书记载,商代开国君主汤听说有莘氏的疱人(厨师)伊尹贤能,欲求而被有莘氏拒绝。商汤求贤若渴,假借</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">请取(有莘氏)妇为婚</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">之名,使伊尹以</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">媵臣</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">(陪嫁奴隶)的身分来到了商</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">④</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。伊尹运用游说之术,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">负鼎俎,以滋味说汤,致于王道</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,取得汤的信任,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">举任以国政</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑤</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。伊尹辅佐商汤,兴商灭夏,成为一代贤相。商汤采用的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">瞒天过海</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">之术和伊尹的游说之术,都是商代运用政治权术的具体事例。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">商朝末年,西伯文王(即周文王)阴怀大志,为了招揽人才,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">日中不暇食以待士</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,后遭到商纣王的疑忌,被囚于羑里。西伯的臣属乃用贿赂之术,挑选美女和骏马献给商纣王,赎回了西伯。西伯被释后,韬光晦迹,敛藏锋芒,主动给商纣王</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">献洛西之地</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑥</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,以示臣服。但在暗地里西伯却与吕尚(姜太公)</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">阴谋修德以倾</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">商政,其事多兵权与奇计</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑦</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。经过几十年的惨淡经营,周文王羽翼渐丰,终于奠定了西周灭商的基础。在周文王发迹的过程中,即成功地运用了贿赂之术、韬晦之术等权术手段。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">虽然类似上述的实例还可以举出若干,但就整体而言,夏商周三代的权术手段毕竟还比较浅露单调,运用范围也较有限。</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在当时的历史条件下,奴隶主阶级对奴隶阶级的压迫和统治,更多的是直接采用赤裸裸的BL手段。以血缘关系为纽带的宗法制度,也使奴隶主阶级内部相对具有一</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">定的亲和力。所以,此时的权术,尚未如后世那般恣意妄为。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><B><FONT face="Times New Roman">1</FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、春秋时期,阶级关系和政治形势发生了很大的变化,政治权术也相应地有了迅速的发展。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">周王室地位的急剧衰落和周边游牧民族对中原地区所造成的威胁,无疑是春秋时期政治形势发生的重大变化之一。这种变化,为政治权术的发展提供了新的契机。周</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">天子大权旁落,觊觎霸权者大有人在。一些强大的诸侯国纷纷树起</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">尊王攘夷</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的旗帜,以便名正言顺地角逐争霸。齐桓公霸业煌煌,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">九合诸侯不以兵车</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑧</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,重</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">要原因之一就是使用了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">挟天子以令诸侯</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的权术。楚庄王即位之初,国内政局未定,不欲早露锋芒,三年间</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">不出号令,日夜为乐</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">左抱郑姬,右抱越女,坐</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">钟鼓之间</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。待时机成熟后,表面上沉沦无为的楚庄王突然行动起来,露出了峥嵘的真相。他大力整顿内政,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">所诛者数百人,所进者数百人</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,同时进兵中原,与</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">晋争霸,饮马黄河,问鼎于周,实现了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">三年不飞,飞将冲天;三年不鸣,鸣将惊人</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的自诩</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑨</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。越王勾践与吴交战,兵败被俘。他自甘下贱,为吴王夫差养马,甚</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">至亲尝吴王的尿液,为其辨疾。被释放归国后,勾践卧薪尝胆,经过</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">十年生聚,十年教训</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,终于报仇雪恨,灭了吴国</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">上述这些著</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">名的权变故事,反映出政治权术在春秋争霸斗争中得到了广泛的运用。争霸,不仅需要经济和军事实力的拚搏,而且需要政治权术的较量。为了在争霸斗争中占据主</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">动,各诸侯国的统治者们开始高度重视包括权术在内的各种治国之术的钻研揣摩,同时也努力寻求国际之间政治斗争、外交斗争、军事斗争的有效手段。争霸斗争的</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">需要,促成了政治权术的迅速发展。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><B><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman">2</FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、春秋时期政治形势变化的又一个表现是宗法制的逐步衰落。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> “</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">衰周之末,贵诈贱诚</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">西周统治时秩序已面临</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">礼崩乐坏</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的局面,宗法制</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">尊尊</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">” </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">亲亲</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的原则渐次遭到破坏,奴隶主阶级传统的政治道德观念在社会上的统治地位发生了动摇。这种</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">世风日下、人心不古</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的状况,使政治权术得以在一定程</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">度上摆脱以往传统道德观念的束缚,更加大胆、更加广泛地施展自己的身手。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> “</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">春秋之中,弑君三十六,亡国五十二,诸侯奔走不得保其社稷者不可胜数</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。在这些</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">臣弑君</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">子弑父</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的血腥阴谋事件中,权术立下了汗马功劳。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">春秋初期,郑庄公与弟太叔段不睦,其母姜氏褊袒爱子太叔段。庄公表面上处处顺从母意,对其弟的种种违制活动忍让纵容,俨然有孝子慈兄之风。但在实际上,庄</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">公早已成算在胸。他有意识地导引太叔段走向</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">多行不义必自毙</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的道路,以便为自己根除心腹之患创造出正当的理由。当太叔段公然发兵叛乱后,庄公等待已久的</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">时机终于来到。他毫不留情地诛杀了胞弟,又将生母姜氏逐出王宫,并立下了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">不及黄泉,无相见也</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的绝情誓言。后来,庄公采用自欺欺人的办法,掘地见泉,接</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">回姜氏,为自己挽回了不孝的声誉,而在表面上又没有违背誓言</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">AE.</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">如果说春秋初期的郑庄公杀弟逐母尚还有所顾忌的话,那么春秋中期的楚穆王商臣弑父夺位则</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">采取了更加肆无忌惮的手段。商臣为太子时,预感储君的地位受到了威胁,一时难以察实,便运用了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">投石问路</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的权术手段,故意触犯其父成王的一位宠妹。这位</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">姑母被侄子的无礼所激怒,一时口失,暴露了楚成王打算另立太子的意图。商臣立即与其师傅策划于密室,抢先发动了宫廷军事政变。当成王被包围于王宫时,为了</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">拖延时间以等待外授,请求食用难熟的熊掌之后再死。商臣不许。成王为子所逼,无奈死去</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">AF.</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">一部</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">春秋</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">史中,不知有多少个太叔段与楚成王先后成为权术争</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">斗中的牺牲品。用孟子的话来说,这一时期</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">世衰道微,邪说暴行有作。臣弑其君者有之,子弑其父者有之</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">以往神圣的血缘亲疏观念,已无法阻挡权术成长的脚步。这种状况,正是春秋时期社会大变革的必然反映。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">历史上每一种新的进步都必然表现为对某一神圣事物的亵渎,表现为对陈旧的、日渐衰亡的、但为习惯所崇奉的秩序的叛逆</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">社会的大变动,促成了传统道德的沦丧。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">旧有的政治道德的篱笆一旦冲垮,寡廉鲜耻的政治权术益发肆无忌惮,似乎取得了理直气壮地在政治舞台扮演正式角色的地位。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><B><FONT face="Times New Roman">3</FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、春秋时期阶级关系和政治形势发生的另一个重大变化,就是新兴的地主阶级开始作为一支政治力量逐步登上了历史舞台。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">随着封建生产关系在奴隶制内部的产生,地主阶级的经济实力和政治要求都在不断增长,奴隶主阶级与地主阶级之间的各种矛盾斗争渐次展开。阶级关系的这种新变化,使原来较为单纯的政治格局增添了复杂的因素,为政治权术的发展提供了新的天地。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">政治权术在春秋时期的动荡不安中继续发展。在这一时期,权术的基本特征已经在政治斗争的实践中显现暴露,具体的权术手段逐渐发展丰富,权术的运用场合也在增多扩大。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">中国古代政治权术的雏形已经开始形成。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR></SPAN><SPAN class=orange><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">二、封建时代初期的权术</SPAN></B></SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">当战国秦汉时代的帷幕拉开之后,展现在人们面前的全然是一幅崭新的历史场景:新兴地主阶级向奴隶主阶级展开的大规模夺权斗争,封建制度在全国范围内的确立</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">和巩固,战国七雄之间连年不断的兼并战争,大一统的中央集权的封建专制Z義帝国的建立,地主阶级与农民阶级之间阶级矛盾的激化,全国规模的农民大起义的爆</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">发,严密的官僚制度的建立和健全,地主阶级内部各种政治矛盾的展开和发展</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">……</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">这一切,使得政治权术面临着比以前任何时代都更为广阔、更为复杂的时代背景和</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">社会环境。正是适应这种历史条件的需要,也正是经历了这种历史条件的磨练,中国古代的政治权术终于举行了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">冠礼</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,逐步发展成熟。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术走向成熟的标志,首先是权术在政治斗争中的重要作用越来越被人们所深刻认识。战国秦汉时代的统治者们从历史事实中看到了权术的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">神通</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,开始将其视为</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">统治者必须掌握的法宝。在当时的政治论坛上,出现了一批高度强调</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">数</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">重要性的言论。例如:申不害主张</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">圣君任法而不任智,任数而不任</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">说</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">;商鞅认为</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">凡知道者,势、数也,故先王不恃其强而恃其势,不恃其信而恃其数</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">;韩非子鼓吹</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">人主之大物,非法则术也</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">;《吕氏春秋》宣扬</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">古之王</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">者,其所为少,其所因多,因者君术也,为者臣道也</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">;等等。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> “</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">术治</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,不仅成为政治思想领域中时髦的热门话题,而且在政治实践中</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">也得到了高度的重视。战国政客们的纵横捭阖、秦始皇对权术之学的赞赏推崇、汉高祖刘邦的狡谲权变、光武帝刘秀的韬晦自保、曹操的多疑奸诈、诸葛亮的睿智诡</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">密,无不说明当时的统治者们既是权术理论的崇拜信奉者、又是权术实践的身体力行者。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术走向成熟的再一个标志,就是政治权术的合</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">理性逐渐得到封建统治者的公开认可。权术行使</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">诡道</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,与奴隶制时代的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">尊尊亲亲</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">原则和儒家</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">孝悌忠顺之道</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">是相违背的。为了解除传统政治道德观念对权</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">术的束缚,新兴地主阶级的政治理论家们不得不担负起论证权术合理性的任务。申不害、商鞅、韩非子即是其中的突出代表。他们在自己的著作中,公然为权术张</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">目,不仅论证了权术在建立和巩固君主专制统治过程中的合法生存权利,而且还毫不避讳地研究和介绍了各种具体的阴险毒辣的权术应用方法。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在他们看来,政治权术乃是光明正大的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">为君之道</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,毫无见不得人之处。这种状况的出现,绝不是偶然的历史现象,而是正处于上升阶段的地主阶级的思想状态的一种必然反映。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">此时的地主阶级,代表着当时社会发展的方向,充满着勃勃的生机。他们出于同奴隶制作斗争的需要,尚能正视现实,直截了当地承认贪欲或恶欲所起的作用,无须</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">用仁义道德之类的虚伪外衣作掩饰。统治者的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">松绑驰禁</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,使战国秦汉时期的政治权术在很大程度上摆脱了道德绳索的羁绊,进入了相对自由发展的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">黄金时</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">代</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><B><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman">1</FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、权术走向成熟的又一个标志,则是一批</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN></B><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">专业化</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN></B><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的权变之士的出现。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> “</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">战国之际,秦、仪</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">之徒,智略兼人,辩利轶轨,倜傥挟义,观衅相时,图爵位则佩六绂,谋货财则输海内,一怒而诸侯惧,安居而天下憩。人主见弄于股掌之上而莫知恶也</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">这些</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">处</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">扰攘之世、行揣摩之术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的权变之士,为了追求个人的名利富贵,周游列国,朝秦暮楚,翻云覆雨,推波助澜,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">入楚楚重,出齐齐轻,为赵赵完,畔魏魏伤</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,具</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">有很大的政治活动能量。时人将他们称之为</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">反覆之臣</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">” </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">倾危之士</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。权变之士对战国时期政局的发展变化可起到举足轻重的作用。他们不同于韩非子一类纸上谈兵的政治权术理论家,而是一批职业化的权术实践家。</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">他们以追逐富贵为目的,以玩弄权术为职业,不讲任何政治道德和政治气节,各种卑劣无耻的手段可以无所不用其极。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在政治斗争的实践中,战国权变之士把政治权术的发展推到了一个新的阶段。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术走向成熟的最后一个标志,就是权术手段自身的系统化和完备化。中国古代的各种基本的权术手段,至战国秦汉时期已经发展趋于完备。权术家族的各个主要成</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">员,在这一时期的政治舞台上均已粉墨登场,做过亮相表演。以夺取君权为目标的政变之术,为专制君主服务的驭臣之术、用于阶级斗争场合的愚民之术、无耻的谄</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">媚之术、阴险的韬晦之术、卑劣的谗毁诬陷之术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">……</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">都在战国秦汉时代的历史中留</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">下了各自独特的印迹。尽管后世的政治权术在运用方法和熟练程度上还有新发展,但就古代权术的主要种类而言,大概在战国秦汉时期就已经发展齐全了。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">中国古代政治权术之所以在战国秦汉这一特定历史时期走向成熟,有着多方面的原因。概括起来主要有以下几个方面:第一,政治经验的积累。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">自春秋末期至战国秦汉,是我国历史上一个大动荡、大变革、大进步的时期。这一时期的政治斗争,呈现着极为错综复杂、又为极丰富多彩的状况。经过多样化的、</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">广阔的政治斗争的磨练,斗争的各方日渐积累了越来越丰富的政治斗争的经验,逐步掌握了越来越成熟的政治斗争的技巧。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">春秋战国时</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">期,诸侯割据、列国争雄,国与国之间的斗争十分尖锐突出。这种政治格局与后世中央集权的统一王朝是大不相同的。各诸侯国之间的政治斗争、军事斗争、经济斗</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">争、外交斗争交织在一起,为权术的成长提供了特殊的实践场所。在处理国际关系的政治谋略中,繁衍派生出了各种诡诈的具体权术手段。这些权术手段有一个显著</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的特点,就是政治权术与军事谋略浑然一体,当时的人们将其称之为</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">比之堂上、擒将户内、拔城于尊俎之间、折冲席上者也</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。中国历史上许多有声有色的著名权</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">变故事,就集中发生在此时的国际斗争舞台上。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">例如在战国前期,强盛的魏国图谋攻秦,秦王自知</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">以一秦而敌大魏,恐不如</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,乃派卫</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">鞅前往魏国游说。卫鞅建议魏王北面结盟燕国、西面联合秦国,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">先行王服,然后图齐、楚</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。魏王果然中计,俨然摆出了一副凌驾于诸之上的天子排场,结果触犯</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">众怒,激化了齐、楚、韩诸大国与魏国的矛盾。不久,即爆发了著名的齐魏</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">马陵之战</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">齐人伐魏,杀其太子,覆其十万之军</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。秦国则不费吹灰之力,仅凭一</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">个小小的权术伎俩,便坐享其利,不但消除了魏国进攻的威胁,而且还趁</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">两虎相争</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">之际,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">垂拱受西河之外</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,扩大了自己的势力范围</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">LI.</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">类似的事例,在战</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">国史上不胜枚举。这一时期特有的国际斗争的经验,客观上为中国古代政治权术的成熟提供了直接的养料和得天独厚的生长环境。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在战国</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">秦汉时期的各种政治关系中,除了国际关系之外,君臣关系开始占据越来越重要的地位。封建制的郡县制取代奴隶制的分封制之后,一个庞大的职业官僚集团在政界</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">异军突起。特别是在秦汉大一统王朝建立之后,国际之间的斗争退居到了相对次要的地位,君臣关系开始成为统治阶级内部面临的最主要矛盾。这种变化,促使权术</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">争斗的主要阵地也随之发生了相应的转移。在君臣之间的尔虞我诈和勾心斗角之中,君主们努力探索着各种徕臣、使臣、驭臣、制臣的阴谋诡计,臣属们也在苦心孤</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">诣地寻求着各种欺君和弄君之术。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">中国封建社会初期的统治者在处理君臣关系方面的需要及其积累的经验,对政治权术的成熟产生了极为重要的影响。实际上,当时的政治权术,除了国际斗争中的政治谋略之外,主要部分就是人君驭臣之术及其臣属弄君之术。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">战国秦汉时期,统治者开始认真总结研究前世及当代政治斗争的经验,出现了两种类型的权术之学。一种以《韩非子》为代表,主要是总结探讨君主驭臣之术。另一</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">种以《战国纵横家书》为代表,主要是记录汇集有关权变和游说的故事及其手段。根据《汉书。艺文志》中的著录,当时的纵横家的著作就有《苏子》三十一篇、</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《张子》十篇、《庞煖》二篇、《阙子》一篇、《国筮子》十七篇等等。西汉末年,刘向根据当时尚存的《国策》、《国事》、《事语》、《短长》、《长书》、</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《修书》等本子,编订了著名的《战国策》一书。除此之外,在一些零星的记载中,还可以看到《揣情》、《摩意》之类的篇目名称</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">LJ.</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术之学的盛行和泛滥,</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">使实际政治斗争中直观的、偶然的、分散的权变手段逐步走向系统化、规律化和理论化了。这些研讨术治的法家理论著作以及纵横家关于权变游说的故事汇编,无疑</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">为人们提供了吸取借鉴和学习模仿的蓝本,起到了政治权术教科书的作用,在权术走向成熟和推广运用的过程中发挥了实际的功效。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><B><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">第二,兵家权谋的影响。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">自春秋战国至秦汉时期,各类战争接连不断。仅据《春秋》记载,在春秋时期的242年间,列国之间进行的战争竟达483次,战国时期的战争,规模更大,形势</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">也更为错综复杂。秦汉时期则更是出现了全国规模的农民战争和争夺皇权的战争。在频繁而激烈的战争实践中,古代的军事家们创造了许许多多运用谋略手段夺取战</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">争胜利的战例。后人所总结的中国古代兵法</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">三十六计</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">当中,大部分反映的是春秋战国秦汉时期所创造的兵家权谋手段。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">适应当时战争的需要,中国古代的军事科学也在这一时期得到了迅速发展。在当时的一些军事理论著作中,有关兵家权谋的内容占有十分重要的地位。人们在战争中所采用的谋略手段,与政治斗争中的权术手段有着许多相通之处。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">特别是在春秋战国的历史条件下,国与国之间的政治斗争和军事斗争紧紧交织在一起,政治权术与兵家权谋之间往往表现出一种水乳交融、难分彼此的关系。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">兵家权谋的迅速发展必然会对政治权术的成熟产生直接的影响。关于兵家权谋对政治权术的影响,我们将在本书中另作专章探讨。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><B><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">第三,其他因素的作用。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">除了政治经验的积累和兵家权谋的影响之外,战国秦汉时期政治权术的成熟还受到了其他一些因素的作用和影响。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">首先,古代商品经济的高度发展对政治权术的成熟产生了不容低估的影响。战国秦汉时期,中国古代商品经济的发展出现了一个高潮。随着商品经济的发展,货币权</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">力在不断增长。富商豪强</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">馆舍布于州郡,田亩连于方国。身无半通青纶之命,而窃三辰龙章之服;不为编户一伍之长,而有千室名邑之役。荣乐过于封君,势力侔</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">于守令。财赂自营,犯法不坐。刺客死士,为之投命</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">这种状况,对于当时的统治秩序和</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">言义不言利</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的传统道德规范无疑产生了强</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">烈的冲击。商品经济唯利是图而不择手段,政治权术同样是为达目的而不讲信义。在破坏传统道德方面,两者具有一致性。战国秦汉时期,商品经济的发展,促成了</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">社会上</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">贵利贱义</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">观念的盛行。人们观念上的变化,在客观上为政治权术的成长发展扫除了一些道德上的障碍。政治权术之所以在战国秦汉时期走向成熟,商品经</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">济显然是助了一臂之力的。此外,商业经营中的种种欺诈手段,也对权术手段的丰富发展产生了影响。凡此种种,我们将在后章中另作详论。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">其次,政治权术的成熟又是同古代思想文化的发展分不开的。在战国时期的社会大变革中,各个学派的代表人物纷纷著书立说、议论政治、阐述哲理、互相论辩,形</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">成了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">百家争鸣</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的局面,中国古代思想文化的发展出现了空前的繁荣。在当时的各种理论和学说中,对政治权术产生直接影响的主要有三个方面:一是</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">性恶</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">” </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">论。荀子认为,凡人</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">生而有耳目之欲</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">生而有好利</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">生而有疾恶</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,人的本性天生具有感官欲望、天生就是好利、天生具有排他性和妒嫉心。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">韩非子继承了荀子的性恶论,认为人们之间的关系完全是利害关系的结合,即使是父母子女之间,也是</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">皆挟自为之心</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。至于君臣之间,更是一种利益交换的买卖关系。为了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">利</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,人们相互利用而又相互争斗。一切亲情伦理在</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">利</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”<BR><BR> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">面前都是无能为力的。战国时代的性恶论,实际上从理论角度论证了政治权术生存的合理性,从而为权术学说奠定了理论基础。二是朴素辩证法思想。从春秋时代的</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">老子到战国时代的名家,中国古代朴素辩证法思想有了相当的发展。辩证法的发展,丰富了人类思想文化的宝库,同时也为诡谲的政治权术提供了方法论的武器。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <B>“</B></FONT></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">君权至上</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN></B><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的政治思想。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">战国秦汉时期,封建专制Z義的政治体制已经逐步确立。与之相适应,在政治思想领域出现了绝对君权、君利高于一切的理论主张。这种理论在当时社会上已占据着</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">统治地位。正是从维护绝对君权、保证君利不受侵犯的需要出发,才导致了为极端专制服务的人君南面之术的滥觞和发展。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">再次,战国时</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">代阶级关系的新变化,特别是</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">士</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">阶层在政治领域的活跃,也对政治权术的成熟产生了重要的作用。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">士</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">原本是奴隶主贵族的下层,随着奴隶制的瓦解和封建地</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">主政权的建立,士阶层逐渐分化,性质也发生了变化。战国时代的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">士</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,开始作为地主阶级知识分子而谋求在政治领域一展身手。当时士进入仕途的门径,主要是</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">通过游说。游说则离不开玩弄权术手段。士阶层的活跃和游说之风的盛行,培养和造就了一批权术家,极大地促进了政治权术的发展。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">由于上述种种原因,中国古代的政治权术在战国秦汉时期终于走向成熟。随着新的历史时期的来临,政治权术的发展又走向了一段新的历程。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN class=red><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术发展的新变化汉代之后,政治权术的发展发生了新的变化。</SPAN></B></SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><B><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">变化之一:政治权术在政治思想领域显得更加虚伪。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在新的历史时期中,由于封建地主阶级的统治已经巩固,反对奴隶制的斗争成为过去,新的阶级矛盾和阶级斗争大量出现,统治者的政治理论和统治方法不得不随之发生变化。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">地主阶级统治集团为了欺骗人民、巩固本阶级内部的团结、维护既定的统治秩序,迫切需要重新给自己的社会关系蒙上温情脉脉的面纱。在这种情况下,早期封建社会的政治思想家韩非子们赤裸裸的理论显然是不能适应需要的。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">相比之下,儒家</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">仁义道德</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">之类的学说更能投其所好。从西汉董仲舒主张的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">罢黜百家、独尊儒术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,直到宋明理学的完善,地主阶级逐步改造了奴隶制时代的儒</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">家理论,确立了儒家学说在中国封建社会的正统地位。于是,公然论证权术合理性的言论在政治论坛上销声匿迹了,诡诈的权术受到了封建伦理道德观念越来越多的</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">谴责。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术如同一匹在政治思想领域尽情驰骋的野马,在汉唐之后又被重新戴上了道德的笼头。这种变化,并不意味着封建统治阶级从此抛弃了阴谋诡计而走上了光明正大的坦途。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">纵观唐宋元明清诸朝历史,哪一代没有善于玩弄权术的谲君诈臣系于史册?哪一代没有阴险毒辣的权变故事流传后世?</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">唐代有以</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">笑里藏刀</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">著称的诈臣李义府,其</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">貌状温恭,与人语必嬉怡微笑,而褊忌阴贼,既处机要,欲人附己,微忤意者,辄加倾陷</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">;又有以</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">口蜜腹剑</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">闻</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">名的奸相李林甫,</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">凡才望功业出己右及为上所厚、势位将逼己者,必百计去之,尤忌文学之士,或阳与之善,啗以甘言而阴陷之</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。宋代开国君主赵匡胤玩弄阴谋</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">手段,发动陈桥兵变,才夺取了后周的天下。他所导演的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">杯酒释兵权</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,更是一场淋漓尽致的权术表演。明代开国君主太祖朱元璋和亡国之君崇祯朱由检,在运用</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">责臣之术方面,远远超过秦始皇。特务政治也在明代发展到了登峰造极的地步。有清一代,宫廷政变接连不断,统治集团内部的各种纷争倾轧事件层出不穷,政治权</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">术在野心家和阴谋家的勾心斗角中发挥着重要的作用。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">上文所举之例,不过只是沧海一粟而已。在整个中国古代的政治斗争中,权术始终</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">没有也不可能</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">偃旗息鼓</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">” </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">刀枪入库</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。权术作为阶级社会中的一种不可避免的政治现象,在其历史使命没有完结之前是不可能寿终正寝的。特别是在中国古代君主专制和官僚政治的历史</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">条件下,政治权术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">生逢其时</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,更是遇到了适宜自身滋生蔓延的得天独厚的良壤沃土。所以,尽管政治权术在汉唐之后遭到了统治阶级在道德方面的非难,但并没</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">有对权术的发展造成真正的障碍。在当时的情况下,既不存在权术消亡的客观条件,也不存在统治阶级禁绝权术的主观愿望。权术依然在实际政治斗争中得到广泛的</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">运用。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">政治权术在汉唐之后所遇到的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">恶运</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">其实仅仅限于公开的政治思想论坛。地主阶级从粉饰自己的统治和垄断政治斗争的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">利器</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">” </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的目的出发,在继续暗中大肆玩弄阴谋诡计的同时,抛弃和改变了那种将权术诉诸笔墨并公然为其大唱赞歌的做法。这种变化是同封建统治虚伪化的整体趋势相一致</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">战国时代新兴封建地主阶级的理论勇气已经不复存在。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">类似《韩非子》的那种成篇累牍论述权术的理论文</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">章绝然不会再有问世的可能。即使是那些玩弄权术的行家里手,一旦挥毫动笔、舞文弄墨,留在纸帛之上的也都是些冠冕堂皇的道德文章。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">只可意会,不可言</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">传</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,使政治权术显得更加神秘莫测。在暗中揣摩和实际运用过程中,中国古代的政治权术发展得更加纯熟圆滑、也更加虚伪狡诈了。汉代提倡</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">儒术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">,使权术穿</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">上了一件迷惑人的外衣。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">儒家理论的基本核心与权术的概念是矛盾的。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">独尊儒术</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">之后,从表面看来,统治阶级所提倡的理论与所实行的手段之间产生了明显的背反。然而,这种背反现象的后面,两者之间却是相辅相成的关系。当儒家的高调愈唱愈激昂之时,权术的手段也就随之愈加狡诈。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">两者之间的不解之缘,使权术发展得越来越精密。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">历经此后的两千年,政治权术终于达到无与伦比的高度,并带上了中国独具的特殊标记。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">变化之二:政治权术的运用场合发生了转移并逐步扩展。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">中国古代的政治权术,是在诸侯割据、封建制度初创的历史背景中走向成熟的。因此,刚刚成熟期间的权术,不能不带有强烈的时代特征。它的运用场合,主要集中</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在国际之间的斗争和君臣之间的争斗两个方面。汉唐之后,大一统的专制帝国的统治成为中国古代历史的主要潮流,封建制度也已经走向巩固并逐步完善。政治形势</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的变化,导致了权术的主要活动舞台也随之发生相应的转移。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">国际之间的斗争,本是政治权术活跃的主要舞台。春秋战国时期列国之间的</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">政治斗争、军事斗争、经济斗争和外交斗争,曾经为权术的成长提供了特殊的实践场所。那无数次的你攻我伐、朝秦暮楚的结盟和背约、变化无常的合纵连横、庙堂</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">上的舌枪唇剑、密室中的阴谋暗算</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">……</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">确乎使权术感到了</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">天空任鸟飞、海阔凭鱼跃</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">的乐趣。中国古代的政治权术就是在这些实践的磨练中不断发展丰富并走向成</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">熟的。然而,不论权术对这段</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">黄金时代</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">多么留恋,历史毕竟还是无情地翻过了这一页。当列国争雄的局面结束之后,政治权术不得不告别自己曾经大显身手的舞</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">台,开始另觅新的战场。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在封建制度刚刚确立的时候,摆在专制君主面前的重要政治课题之一,就是如何驾驭和控制官僚群臣。商鞅、韩</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">非等早期封建社会的法家代表人物们所极力探寻的权术之学,实际上就是从君主本位出发,研究和提出了一套君主驭臣的手段。当时的政治权术,主要内涵指的是君</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">主驭臣之术。封建制度巩固之后,君主专制统治进一步加强。君主驭臣的需要不仅没有减弱,反而更加强化。权术争斗仍然主要在君臣之间展开。君主驭臣之术也在</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">汉唐之后有了新的发展,主要表现在:一是驭臣手段的多样化,借此抑彼、平衡牵制、施惠笼络、震慑恐吓、监视防范、明诛暗杀,种种手段,无奇不有。二是驭臣</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">手段的制度化,例如唐代武则天时期实行告密制度,罗织罪名诛杀无辜的大臣;明代实行特务制度,监视防范臣属图谋不轨;清代实行</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">守制</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">和</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">回避</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">制度,防</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">止官吏任期过久和徇情营私;等等。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">三是驭臣手段的系统化,从官职的设置废除、选拔任用、监察考课、赏罚谪迁等各个环节入手,全面加强对臣属的控制。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">总之,在整个中国古代历史中,君臣之间的争斗始终是政治权术的主要战场。这一点在中国封建社会前后期并无大的变化。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">汉唐之后,中国古代政治权术的运用场合突破了君臣关系的范围,开始向着官际关系、官民关系、社会人际关系等新的领域扩展。在官际关系方面,权术找到了施展</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">身手的新天地。君主玩弄阴谋诡计,各级官吏自然会上行下效。在官场上的明争暗斗中,那些诡诈的权术手段</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">——</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">谄媚、贿赂、结党、韬晦、谗毁、诬陷、诡辩等</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">等,成了官吏不可须臾离身的法宝。权术横行政界,败坏了官风吏治,进一步加剧了中国古代官僚政治的腐败与黑暗。在官民关系方面,权术也被当权者作为统治奴</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">役人民的一种欺骗手段而加以广泛的运用。在更广泛意义上的社会人际关系方面,同样可以看到无孔不入的权术的渗透痕迹。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">人们日常生活中的种种欺诈行为,多多少少总是同权术的影响不无关系。权术的欺诈本性,对社会风气产生一种腐蚀作用。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><B><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></B></SPAN><B><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">变化之三:政治权术与兵家权谋的分野日趋明朗。</SPAN></B><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">春秋战国时代的政治权术,往往同兵家权谋浑然一体。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">这种状况是与当时的历史条件分不开的。汉唐之后,情况发生了变化。尽管政治权术与兵家权谋之间仍然存在着相互影响的密切关系,但就总体而言,两者终于分道</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">扬镳。由于列国之间频繁战争的局面已经结束,权术活跃的主要舞台已由国际关系和君臣关系方面集中到了君臣关系和官际关系方面,政治权术的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">专业化</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">程度也</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">就大大增强了。政治斗争和军事斗争毕竟有着各自不同的规律。作为政治斗争手段的政治权术,集中在自己的</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">本行</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">中发挥作用,就更能针对政治斗争的特点,更</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">能符合政治斗争的规律,更能适应政治斗争的需要,更能提高政治斗争的技巧。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <BR><BR> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">中国古代政治权术在汉代之后所发生的变化,概括起</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">来说,就是:政治权术在表现形式上趋于</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">道德化</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、在运用范围上趋于</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">扩大化</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">、在方式手段上趋于</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">政治化</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">。这些变化,反映了中国封建社会中后期阶级斗</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">争和政治斗争的一些新的特点,同时也标志着政治权术发展到了一个新的阶段。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">权术在历史中磨练成长,同时也留下了自己成长的神秘历史。经过漫长的历程,中国古代的政治权术形成了一种无形的网络,繁衍派生出了一个庞大的家族。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">在其他的几篇文章之中,将对这个家族的若干主要成员分别进行剖析论述,其中包括:政变之术、驭臣之术、愚民之术、谄媚之术、韬晦之术、谗毁诬陷之术、阿附结党之术、游说狡辩之术等。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">①</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 萧统:《文选。序》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">②</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 《宋史。徐谊传》</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">③</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 见《左传。襄公四年》</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">④</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 《吕氏春秋。本味》</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑤</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 《史记。殷本纪》</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑥</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 《史记。周本纪》</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑦</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 《史记。齐太公世家》</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑧</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 《论语。宪</SPAN><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">问》</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-bidi-font-family: 宋体">⑨</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'"> 《史记。楚世家》见《吴越春秋》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A B</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">皇甫谧:《释劝论》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A C</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《史记。太史公自序》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A D</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">见《左传。隐公元年》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A E</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">见《左传。文公元年》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A F</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《孟子。滕文公下》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A G</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">恩格斯:《路德维希。费尔巴哈和德国古典哲学的终结》《马</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A H</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">克思恩格斯选集》第4卷第233页。</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><BR><BR><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《太平御览》卷638引《申子》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A I</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《商君书。禁使》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A J</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《韩非子。难三》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">A K</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《吕氏春秋。任数》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L B</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《太平御览》卷464引徐幹《七喻》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L C</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《论衡。答佞》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L D</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《论衡。效力》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L E</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《史记。苏秦列传》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L F</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《史记。张仪列传》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L G</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《战国策。齐策五》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L H L I<BR><BR> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《史记。苏秦列传》《集解》引王劭云:</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《揣情》、《摩意》是</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L J<BR><BR> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《后汉书。仲长统传》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">L K</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《荀子。性恶》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">M B</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《韩非子。外储说左上》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">M C</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《旧唐书。李义府传》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">M D</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 宋体; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'">《资治通鉴。唐纪三十一》</SPAN><SPAN lang=EN-US><FONT face="Times New Roman">M E</FONT></SPAN></P>
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